1. Supreme Court’s Landmark Ruling on the Places of Worship Act, 1991

Context: The Supreme Court of India has issued directives barring civil courts from registering new cases or ordering surveys concerning the ownership or title of places of worship. Pending suits are also restricted from issuing interim or final orders until further hearings scheduled for February 17, 2025.

The Places of Worship Act, 1991: An Overview:

Historical Context:

The Act was enacted during the Ramjanmabhoomi movement in the late 1980s, a period marked by calls for building a Ram temple at the Babri Masjid site in Ayodhya. The PV Narasimha Rao-led government introduced the Act to avert similar disputes and maintain communal harmony.

Objective of the Act

The Act aims to:

• Preserve the religious character of places of worship as it existed on August 15, 1947.
• Prohibit conversions of religious sites, whether within a religion (e.g., one denomination to another) or between religions.

Key Provisions of the Act:

1. Section 3: Bars any conversion of places of worship.
2. Section 4(1): Maintains the religious character of all places of worship as it stood on August 15, 1947.
3. Section 4(2): Prevents new suits related to conversions and mandates abatement of pending suits regarding conversions prior to the cutoff date.
4. Section 5: Excludes the Ram Janmabhoomi-Babri Masjid dispute from its provisions.

Exceptions to the Act:

The Act does not apply to:

• Protected Sites: Classified as ancient monuments or archaeological sites.
• Resolved Legal Cases: Disputes settled before the Act came into effect.
• Mutual Agreements: Where parties agreed to the change before the Act’s enactment.
• Historical Time-Barred Cases: Conversions that occurred before the cutoff date but cannot be contested due to time limits.

Background of the Case:

Core Legal Challenge:

The constitutional validity of the Places of Worship Act, 1991, has been challenged on the following grounds:

1. It allegedly bars judicial review, a basic feature of the Constitution.
2. It imposes an arbitrary retrospective cutoff date, infringing on the religious rights of Hindus, Jains, Buddhists, and Sikhs.

Relevant Timelines and Observations:

• 2022 SC Observations: The court clarified that conducting surveys of religious sites does not inherently violate the Act.
• Ayodhya Verdict (2019): The court upheld the Act as part of the basic structure of the Constitution, viewing it as essential for secularism and communal harmony.

December 2024 Ruling: Key Directions:

Supreme Court’s Stance:

1. Fresh Suits: No new suits can be registered, and no action can proceed on pending cases.
2. Union Government Response: Directed the government to clarify its stand on the constitutional validity of the Act within four weeks.

Observations by the Bench:

• Emphasized that lower courts must adhere to principles laid out in the Ayodhya judgment.
• Stated that larger constitutional principles, even in the absence of the Act, may bar suits seeking to alter the religious character of places of worship.

Key Takeaways:

The Supreme Court has:

• Reinforced the importance of the Places of Worship Act, 1991, in maintaining communal harmony.
• Reiterated the need for adherence to constitutional principles in matters involving religious sites.
• Highlighted the larger implications of any action that could disturb the status quo of places of worship.

Conclusion:

The Supreme Court’s ruling underscores the critical role of the Places of Worship Act in safeguarding India’s secular fabric and promoting peaceful coexistence. The judgment sets a precedent for maintaining communal harmony while addressing historical grievances through constitutional principles, rather than contentious legal battles.

2. Dark Eagle Anti-Missile System: A Game-Changer in Missile Defense

Context: The United States has successfully tested a new anti-missile system called Dark Eagle, which is now approaching operational readiness. This advanced system is designed to bolster missile defense capabilities and enhance strategic deterrence.

What is the Dark Eagle Anti-Missile System?

A Revolutionary Hypersonic Defense System:

The Dark Eagle is a long-range hypersonic anti-missile system engineered by the United States to intercept and neutralize a wide range of threats, including:

• Ballistic missiles
• Cruise missiles
• Hypersonic missiles
• Advanced warheads

Unparalleled Range and Speed:

• Operational Range: Over 2,775 kilometers (1,724 miles), enabling strikes deep within enemy territory.
• Hypersonic Glide Warhead (C-HGB): Equipped with a cutting-edge warhead capable of reaching speeds up to Mach 17. This incredible velocity makes it highly challenging for adversaries to intercept.

Advanced Features:

1. Two-Stage Ballistic Missile Design:
   • One stage incorporates the C-HGB warhead, designed for extreme speed and precision.
2. Hypersonic Capabilities:
   • Reaches speeds of 3,000 to 3,700 meters per second at altitudes below 50 kilometers.

Strategic Superiority:

The Dark Eagle system is designed to outperform advanced air defense systems, including:

• Russia’s S-300V4
• S-400
• S-500

With its unmatched speed, range, and technological sophistication, the Dark Eagle poses a significant challenge to existing missile defense systems.

Why is Dark Eagle Important?

• Enhanced Security: Provides robust defense against emerging missile threats.
• Strategic Deterrence: Strengthens the U.S. position in the global defense landscape.

Technological Edge: Showcases advancements in hypersonic weaponry and missile interception technologies.

Conclusion:

The Dark Eagle Anti-Missile System represents a monumental leap in missile defense technology. With its unparalleled range, hypersonic capabilities, and ability to counter diverse missile threats, it underscores the United States’ commitment to maintaining strategic superiority and ensuring global security.

3. Supreme Court Criticizes Rising Misuse of IPC Section 498A

Context: The Supreme Court of India has expressed concerns over the growing misuse of Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code (now Section 84 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023). This section, originally intended to safeguard married women from cruelty, is increasingly being exploited for personal vendettas.

Understanding Section 498A (Now Section 84):

What Does It Address?

Section 498A penalizes cruelty against married women by their husbands or in-laws. It aims to protect women from:

• Physical or mental harassment
• Dowry-related abuse
• Coercion or violence within marriage

Definition of Cruelty:

Cruelty includes:

1. Wilful conduct likely to drive a woman to suicide or cause grave harm to her physical or mental health.
2. Harassment intended to coerce the woman or her relatives into meeting unlawful demands for money or valuables.

Punishment

• Imprisonment up to three years
• Liability to pay a fine

Key Features:

• Cognizable and non-bailable: Immediate arrest is possible.
• Time-bound complaints: Complaints must be filed within three years of the incident.

Why Was Section 498A Introduced?

Section 498A was enacted in response to increasing cases of dowry deaths and domestic violence during the 1980s. It aimed to provide legal protection to women suffering from:

• Physical and mental abuse
• Dowry-related coercion
• Marital violence

Misuse of Section 498A:

Emerging Concerns:

1. Personal Vendetta: The law is often used to settle scores in matrimonial disputes.
2. Financial Coercion: False allegations are leveraged to extort money from the husband and his family.
3. Vague Complaints: Allegations often lack specific details or supporting evidence.
4. Reputational Damage: Accusations, even if proven false, leave a social stigma for the accused.
5. Immediate Arrests: The provision for quick arrests can lead to undue pressure before guilt is established.

Ethical Implications:

The misuse of such legal provisions undermines their original intent and raises questions about integrity and fairness in the judicial process.

Reasons Behind the Misuse:

1. No Preliminary Verification: Arrests are possible without a thorough investigation, increasing scope for abuse.
2. Marital Disputes: False accusations are often weaponized during divorce or interpersonal conflicts.
3. Lack of Accountability: The absence of penalties for filing false complaints encourages misuse.

Supreme Court’s Stand:

Key Observations:

• Scrutiny of Allegations: Courts must scrutinize vague complaints to prevent harassment of innocent parties.
• Specific Details Needed: FIRs should include concrete allegations with details like time, date, and place of harassment.
• Contextual Examination: The court considers the timing and circumstances of the complaint to assess its authenticity.
• Protecting Innocents: Ensures that family members are not unnecessarily implicated without substantial evidence.
• Judicial Oversight: Emphasizes the judiciary’s role in filtering malicious complaints.

Way Forward:

1. Balanced Laws: Ensure legal frameworks are gender-neutral, protecting the rights of all individuals.
2. Preliminary Inquiry: Mandate a preliminary investigation before registering FIRs to screen false cases.
3. Family Welfare Committees: Independent bodies can review complaints before arrests, as suggested in the Rajesh Sharma case.
4. Accountability for False Complaints: Introduce penalties for individuals filing malicious complaints to deter misuse.

Conclusion:

While Section 498A plays a critical role in protecting women from cruelty, its misuse undermines justice and burdens the judicial system. A balanced approach, incorporating preliminary scrutiny and accountability mechanisms, is essential to preserve the integrity of this important provision while safeguarding the rights of the accused.

4. Union Cabinet Approves Bills for Simultaneous Polls

Context: The Union Cabinet has recently approved two critical Bills aimed at implementing simultaneous elections for the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies. One of these Bills proposes constitutional amendments, while the other focuses on amending laws related to Union Territories with Legislative Assemblies.This development follows recommendations by a high-level committee, led by former President Shri Ram Nath Kovind, outlining a roadmap for conducting simultaneous elections across Parliament, State Assemblies, and Local Bodies.

5. ISRO Successfully Tests CE20 Cryogenic Engine

Context: The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) recently conducted a successful sea-level hot test of the CE20 Cryogenic Engine at the ISRO Propulsion Complex, Mahendragiri, Tamil Nadu. This marks a significant milestone in India’s advancements in cryogenic rocket technology.

What is Cryogenic Engine Technology?

Cryogenic engines utilize rocket propellants stored at extremely low temperatures, ensuring efficient propulsion.

• Liquid Hydrogen (LH2) serves as the fuel, remaining in liquid form at temperatures below -253°C.
• Liquid Oxygen (LOX) acts as the oxidizer, staying liquid at temperatures below -183°C.

These propellants are combined in precise proportions to achieve high-efficiency combustion.

Features of the CE20 Cryogenic Engine:

1. Engine Restart Capability:
   • Equipped with a multi-element igniter, this engine can be restarted, an essential feature for complex missions like Gaganyaan.
   • Ensures reliable performance in space.
2. Nozzle Protection System:
   • A newly tested Nozzle Protection System prevents flow separation and vibrations, enhancing engine stability and testing outcomes.
3. Advanced Combustion Process:
   • The staged combustion process ensures optimal mixing of LH2 and LOX, improving engine efficiency and thrust.

Significance of Cryogenic Engines in India’s Space Program:

1. Boost to Space Missions:
   • Cryogenic engines provide the necessary thrust for launching heavy payloads, enabling missions like Gaganyaan, satellite deployments, and interplanetary exploration.
2. Indigenous Development:
   • Mastery over cryogenic technology enhances self-reliance, reducing dependence on foreign expertise.
   • India joins an elite group of nations, including the US, France, Russia, China, and Japan, capable of developing indigenous cryogenic engines.
3. Enhanced Payload Capacity:
   • The higher specific impulse of cryogenic engines allows rockets to carry heavier payloads, making them ideal for advanced space missions

Conclusion:

The successful test of the CE20 Cryogenic Engine showcases ISRO’s engineering excellence and highlights India’s growing capabilities in space exploration. This development strengthens the nation’s position in the global space arena, paving the way for future ambitious missions.

6. Climate Footprint of Space Exploration

Context: The rapid expansion of space exploration has brought environmental impacts—such as rocket emissions and satellite debris—to the forefront, often overlooked by global sustainability frameworks like the Paris Agreement. Urgent action is required to address these concerns and ensure a sustainable future in space.

How Are Space Activities Affecting the Environment?

1. Rocket Emissions:
   • Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), black carbon, and water vapor are released during rocket launches.
   • Black carbon absorbs sunlight around 500 times more efficiently than CO₂, exacerbating global warming.
   • Chlorine-based rocket propellants deplete the ozone layer, leading to increased UV exposure and disrupting atmospheric circulation.
2. Space Debris:
   • As of September 2024, there are 19,590 satellites launched, with 13,230 still in orbit, and 10,200 being operational.
   • The total mass of space objects exceeds 13,000 tonnes, contributing significantly to pollution by space debris due to overcrowding in low Earth orbit (LEO).
   • Non-functional satellites and debris from collisions add to the growing problem of space junk, making space increasingly inaccessible.
   • This debris can disrupt radio waves and sensor accuracy, affecting critical systems for disaster tracking, climate monitoring, and communication.
3. Satellite Manufacturing:
   • The production of satellites involves energy-intensive processes, particularly through the use of metals and composites.
   • Satellite propulsion systems also release additional emissions during orbital adjustments.
   • Satellites burn up during re-entry, releasing metallic “satellite ash” which can alter atmospheric dynamics and harm the climate.
4. Emerging Threats:
   • Space mining, although not yet operational, poses a potential threat to both Earth and space environments.
   • Increased industrial activity in orbit could intensify environmental impacts, compounding the challenges posed by current space operations.

Barriers to Sustainable Space Exploration:

1. Lack of Regulations:
   • Space activities are not covered by agreements like the Paris Accord, leaving emissions and debris largely unregulated.
   • Without clear guidelines, the rapid increase in satellites and debris has led to overcrowded orbits, making future missions more costly and riskier.
   • The Outer Space Treaty, 1967, emphasizes responsible use but lacks binding provisions for environmental sustainability.
   • In 2019, the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) adopted 21 voluntary guidelines for the long-term sustainability of space activities. However, the lack of binding regulations and conflicting national and commercial priorities hinder their implementation, making it challenging to achieve a unified approach to space sustainability.
2. Commercial Exploitation of Space:
   • Profit-focused companies are driving activities such as space resource recovery from asteroids, developing commercial space stations, and offering space tourism.
   • These activities may undermine sustainability efforts, as commercial interests often clash with the need for environmental protection.
3. High Costs:
   • Developing and implementing sustainable technologies for space exploration is expensive, including costs related to debris mitigation, sustainable fuel alternatives, and long-term missions.
   • Many of these technologies are still in development and require substantial investment.
4. Data-Sharing Issues:
   • Security and commercial interests often hinder real-time satellite and debris tracking, which is crucial for coordinated space traffic management.
   • Overcoming data-sharing resistance and building trust with security protocols are key for effective space traffic management.

Where Does India Stand on Space Sustainability?

1. Private Sector Engagement:
   • The establishment of the Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre (In-SPACe) is expected to boost the role of private companies.
   • Startups like Agnikul, Skyroot, and Dhruva Space are developing sustainable satellite launch vehicles and technologies.
   • Manastu Space Technologies has delivered the iBooster Green Propulsion System to the Defence Research and Development Organisation, which uses hydrogen peroxide-based fuel for safer, cost-effective satellite operations like orbit raising and deorbiting.
2. Space Debris Management:
   • The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)’s Network for Space Objects Tracking and Analysis (NETRA) project aims to track space debris, providing critical data to protect space assets and help manage risks.
   • This initiative helps manage risks and prevent Kessler Syndrome, where collisions create more debris.
   • India has also collaborated with the US on space object monitoring under a pact signed in 2022.
3. In-Orbit Servicing:
   • ISRO is developing the SPADX (Space Docking Experiment) to dock satellites for refuelling and other services, which will enhance satellite longevity and mission flexibility.

Way Forward:

1. Technological Innovations:
   • Reusable rockets, like those developed by Elon Musk’s SpaceX, reduce waste and costs.
   • Green hydrogen and biofuels can lower emissions in launches.
   • Electric propulsion is efficient for low-thrust missions but not suitable for heavy-lift operations.
   • Nuclear propulsion presents a potential option but carries the risk of nuclear radiation pollution in the event of an accident within Earth’s atmosphere.
2. Mitigating Orbital Debris:
   • Biodegradable satellites, such as Japan’s LignoSat, where components could disintegrate on re-entry, help reduce space debris.
   • Investment in Autonomous Debris Removal (ADR) technologies such as robotic arms and lasers is essential for cleaning up existing debris.
   • Deorbiting satellites from LEO to Geostationary Orbit (GEO) or higher orbits can reduce the risk of re-entry into Earth’s atmosphere and minimize debris accumulation in LEO.
3. Global Traffic Management:
   • A global system to monitor satellite movements in real-time would reduce collision risks and ensure safer orbital use.
   • Overcoming data-sharing resistance and building trust with security protocols are key for effective space traffic management.
4. Policy and Governance:
   • Aligning sustainability goals with the Outer Space Treaty and introducing binding agreements under COPUOS is essential for enforcing environmental responsibility in space.
   • Governments can enforce emission caps, debris mitigation, and offer incentives for green technologies through subsidies and penalties to promote a sustainable space industry.
5. Public-Private Partnerships:
   • Collaboration between governments and private entities is key to funding sustainable technologies.
   • Shared accountability frameworks ensure mutual responsibility for sustainability in space.